Brucellosis is a major abortifacient zoonotic agent of livestock with a worldwide occurrence [1]. Bovine brucellosis is caused by infection with Brucella abortus[2]. This species and B. melitensis and B. suis, the two other Brucella species of veterinarian importance, are highly infectious and pathogenic organisms that cause infertility, abortion and low productivity in their natural hosts [2]. Establishment of the carrier state in a large proportion of animals can lead to a major reduction in milk yield which together with losses through abortion or early calf death due to B. abortus infection is a huge economic constraint for farmers [3, 4]. In regions where disease surveillance and control measures are not instigated, long-term chronic infections are often associated with carpal hygromas and infertility [5]. Disease presentations in bulls include orchitis, epididymitis and seminal vesiculitis [6]. The ability of the pathogen to survive and replicate within different host cells explains its pathogenicity. Extensive replication in placental trophoblasts is associated with abortion, and persistence in macrophages and other cell types leads to chronic infections [7]. Chronically infected cattle may shed the organism via milk and reproductive tract discharges, and can also vertically transmit infection to subsequently born calves, thereby maintaining disease transmission. Aborted fetuses from infected animals contain huge numbers of infectious organisms and if not properly disposed form a major source of contamination. The pathogen is highly contagious and is easily spread by licking of infected animals and abortion materials, and abortion materials, discharges and waste of infected animals may contaminate stables, meadows, food supplies and water sources. Direct contact with infected animals and consumption of contaminated dairy may cause infection in human beings [8].

Although few studies have reported the presence of brucellosis in livestock in Indonesia, the infection could well be widespread also because of unrestricted trade between different provinces and islands and the absence of a coherent control policy and surveillance system. In Indonesia, brucellosis was isolated from cattle in Java as early as 1915 [9]. Subsequent serological studies have indicated the presence of bovine brucellosis in cattle in different islands of the Indonesian archipelago including South Sulawesi and West Timor [10, 11]. Porcine brucellosis has been reported in pigs in Java with a seroprevalence in the Rose Bengal test (RBT) of 22.3% for pigs slaughtered in Kapuk Jakarta in West Java and of 14.9% for animals tested at a slaughterhouse in Surabaya in East Java [12]. Infection with B. suis biovar 1 was confirmed by isolation. Although infection of goats and sheep in Indonesia has not been documented, B. melitensis is likely to be present as well. The consumption of milk and other dairy is not popular in Indonesia and possibly for that reason and because of lack of awareness and absence of diagnostic facilities human cases have not been documented in recent decades. However, farmers, veterinarians and butchers constitute potential risk groups and the diagnosis is easily overlooked as symptoms and signs of brucellosis are non-pathognomonic [13]. For the control of bovine brucellosis an effective vaccine is available [14, 15].

Rearing beef cattle is an important and often the only source of income for the numerous small farm holders found throughout the Eastern Indonesian archipelago. Most cattle kept in the area is indigenous Bali breed [16]. The small scale extensive farming systems employed mainly include stall-feeding with grasses, crop residues and or agro-industrial by-products, and roadside and communal grazing with animals tethered or allowed access to grassland, stubble fields or forest areas. The frequent contact between herds and the generally poor sanitary conditions at farms likely contribute to the transmission and spread of pathogens. Cattle farmers in east Indonesia cope with low productivity and reproductive failure is common. Good quantitative information on brucellosis in the livestock population is essential for demonstrating the benefits of intervention. The aim of the study was to investigate the presence of bovine brucellosis and role of brucellosis in the high incidence of reproductive failure of cattle in South-Sulawesi. To this end an inventory of reproductive problems was made and the seroprevalence was determined for a random selection of cattle farms and animals. Isolation of the pathogen from hygroma fluid samples was attempted to confirm the presence of Brucella and to examine the diversity and spread of Brucella strains isolates were characterized by genotyping and results were compared with the genotypes of a collection of Brucella strains previously obtained from cattle in various parts of Sulawesi and East Timor, another main island in the Eastern Indonesia archipelago. Serological testing requires a major logistic effort with transport of samples to a central laboratory that may delay reporting and use of test results. Thus, to simplify testing we took advantage of this study to evaluate a simple and rapid field test for the serodiagnosis of bovine brucellosis that may be used at the pen side [17–19].

The observed very high seroprevalence (19.3% in CFT) of brucellosis in cattle in the Pinrang district of South Sulawesi in the Eastern Indonesian archipelago and the recent isolation of the pathogen from two seropositive cows clearly demonstrated the urgent need for the instigation of appropriate control measures based on mass vaccination. The presence of brucellosis in livestock is detrimental to the production system as it causes abortion, weak siblings and reduced fertility. Information collected from farmers in one subdistrict of Pinrang confirmed that their animals suffered from high abortion rates (11.4%) and mortality during or shortly after birth (7.9%) with 39.0% of the cows having had reproductive problems. With increasing age reproductive problems markedly increased and 71.4% of animals in the higher age group (≥9 year) had suffered from one or more reproductive failure. Various reports from the African continent have demonstrated an association between seropositivity and present or past abortion in livestock [22–30]. However, no correlation between CFT seropositivity for brucellosis and reproductive problems was found in this study. Cattle with reproductive failure did not show spatial clustering and areas with high reproductive failure did not correlate with high CFT positivity. A possible explanation is that current seropositivity in the CFT test does not reflect a high rate of active circulation of the pathogen and that some seropositive animals were recently exposed to the pathogen without fully supporting infection. Abortion in cattle is a manifestation of acute disease and current seropositivity may not reflect the occurrence of a past infection that caused reproductive failure. Serological testing may not be sensitive enough to detect residual antibody levels of an infection that caused reproductive failure in the past and that has been resolved by the immune system. Also, reproductive failure could be the result of infection by other abortifacient pathogens such as bovine viral disease, leptospirosis, Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Campylobacter ssp., and Ornithodoros coriaceus, and further studies are needed to investigate the presence of these agents [31–34]. A recent study investigating reproductive failure in cattle in Ethiopia indicated that Neospora caninum infection might have a greater impact than infection with Brucella[35]. Moreover, the risk of abortion could be increased for co-infections [36]. Nevertheless, bovine brucellosis appears to be widespread in the Eastern Indonesian archipelago: a summary of our laboratory records for samples submitted during the past two year for routine serological testing for brucellosis revealed that seropositive animals have been detected in thirteen out of 30 districts in Sulawesi (N = 2.429 samples; 14.6% seropositive, range 0-100%) investigated, in four out of five districts in the Maluku (N = 768 samples; 3.4% seropositive, range 0–14.4%), and in one out of five districts in Papua (N = 80 samples; 2.5% seropositive, range 0–33.3%). Transmission and spread of B. abortus is by intrauteral infection of the fetus, through ingestion of contaminated milk by offspring and through direct or indirect mucosal contact with fluids and tissue associated with birth or abortion of infected fetuses [37]. If farm sanitation is insufficient and infected animals are not kept separated, stables, meadows, food stocks and water points may all become contaminated and function as sources for further transmission. Several factors that perpetuate the transmission of infectious diseases are present in South Sulawesi. Sanitary conditions are poor at many farms, cattle are brought to common water sources for drinking and may be kept at common pastures during the day. The relatively high cattle density is another factor of concern [2]. In addition, knowledge of farmers of infectious agents and of preventive measures is very limited. Discussion with farmers in the study area have indicated that most farmers consider abortion as a natural but premature delivery and do not associate abortion with disease. Similarly, farmers do not recognize hygroma as a disease presentation. Migration and trade of livestock and the absence of control measures could be important as well. Clearly better information to inform farmers about the causes, consequences and risks of infection is needed [38]. Given the high seroprevalence a well-designed disease education and information program for farmers could be an essential components of a brucellosis control and prevention program. Awareness of farmers of the risks and consequences of infection will increase commitment to participate and contribute to the success of such a program by accepting and implementing measures.

The RBT as screening test together with the CFT for confirmation is considered adequate for the serodiagnosis of Brucella infection in livestock. Direct proof for the infection is obtained after isolation of the pathogen by culture. During the field work two cows were identified with an hygroma at the knee. Hygroma fluid was collected from both cows and after culture isolates were obtained and identified as B. abortus biovar 1 by classical biotyping. The two cows turned out to be seropositive. Because of practical and logistic reasons no attempts were made to culture Brucella from a larger series of seropositive animals identified during the field work. However, MLVA-16 genotyping of a collection of Brucella isolates cultured from hygroma fluids and lymphogranular biopsies established between 1990 and 2011 from cows in various districts in South Sulawesi revealed the presence of a confined group of six B. abortus biovar 1 genotypes that appeared to be very closely related to the two genotypes identified during the present serosurvey. One of the genotypes (BInd33) appeared to be identical to that of a B. abortus biovar 1 strain (strain BfR91) isolated in 1996 from a cow in Switzerland [20]. Two B. abortus biovar 1 genotypes found in South Sulawesi had also been isolated from cattle in East Timor indicating their widespread distribution in the archipelago. Cattle is frequently traded between the various islands of the Indonesian archipelago and without testing and the enforcement of transport restrictions for positive livestock pathogens may be easily spread to other islands and provinces.

In the B. abortus biovar 1 dendogram the Indonesian isolates seem to form a distinct branch that also encompass the BfR91 isolate from Switzerland that is identical to one of the Indonesian genotypes (BInd33), a genotype identified in Zimbabwe (genotype BfR96) and the RB51 vaccine strain (genotype BCCNV5) that was isolated in the USA. The dendogram contains two other main branches made up by isolates mainly from Portugal. It should be noted that genotyping has been done for isolates from only few countries and that the number of isolates originating from Africa, the Americas and Asia that have been characterized is still very small making the picture of the variation and geographic distribution of B. abortus biovar 1 genotypes incomplete. The close genetic relationship of the Indonesian genotypes with specific genotypes from Europe, Africa and America could indicate that pathogens with very similar genotype have been spread to countries on different continents. In the past cattle such as Frisian breed was imported in Indonesia from other continents including Europe and Australia. Alternatively, genotypes may have been evolved independently in different geographic regions. The low degree of diversity in MLVA-16 pattern for the B. abortus isolates from Indonesia implies that the value of MLVA-16 genotyping for source tracing as suggested in a previous study is limited [39]. The BInd01 genotype was isolated nineteen times during a period of almost two decades and from cattle examined at widely different geographic locations in South Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi and East Timor demonstrating the enormous risk of spreading the infection if measures to control transmission are not in place and enforced.

The CFT and the RBT are complex and time consuming and require a dedicated laboratory. The Brucella LFA is very simple to perform and easily can be used in the field. Consistent with earlier observations this assay is highly specific and sensitive and can be used as a user-friendly field test for the rapid assessment of infection with Brucella. The estimated sensitivity of 87.5% and specificity of 98.1% calculated for the LFA are well in agreement with earlier reports of studies performed in Portugal [8], Cameroon [9] and Nigeria [10]. The field teams considered the assay to be fairly easy and rapid to perform in the field. While the Brucella field assay may be used to access the presence and importance of bovine brucellosis in an area additional screening in CFT may be needed to exclude false-negative results. Notably, only few samples all with low CFT titers tested false-negative in the rapid test. Additional testing in the CFT would be useful if a control policy in addition to vaccination would include segregation of infected animals or a test and slaughter strategy.

B. abortus biovar 1 was isolated beef cattle in a major cattle rearing area with reproductive problems in South Sulawesi. B. abortus biovar 1 isolates from the Eastern Indonesian archipelago consisted of a confined group of closely related genotypes with one genotype identical to an isolate from Switzerland. A high seroprevalence was measured which however did not correlate with a history of reproductive failure. The potential detrimental effect of brucellosis on the productivity of the livestock sector calls for an urgent need for the development of a coherent control policy.

The research protocol for this study was approved by the ethical committee of the Hasanuddin University.