Table 1 Reported effects of lead poisoning in dogs

Gastrointestinal

Vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain (“lead colic”), delayed gastric emptying

[12, 21, 22]

Neurological

Tremor, spasms, epileptic seizures, agitation, lethargy, ataxia, anorexia, cortical neuronal necrosis

[12, 22, 28]

Renal

Proximal tubular epithelial cell damage and necrosis, enlarged kidneys

[24, 28]

Skeletal

Sclerosis, delayed closure of vertebral epiphyses, lead lines

[24, 28]

Haematological

Anemia (reduced erythrocyte, lowered haemoglobin, elevated mean cell volume), basophilic stippling, nucleated erythrocytes, elevated leukocyte count

[21, 22, 28]

Cardiovascular

Hypertension, endothelial degeneration and capillary proliferation in the brain

[28, 31]

Biochemical

Reduced ALA-D activity, increased urinary ALA, hypoproteinemia

[20–22, 24, 29, 31]