Table 1 List of RNA/DNA virus known to induce similar disease in man and NHPs
Virus (family) | Nucleic acid | Route of infection | Infection in NHPs | World diffusion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) (Picornaviridae) | RNA | Fecal–oral | Frequently cause fatal outbreaks in several vertebrates, including NHPs of the genus Macaca [17, 18] | Widespread virus isolated from many domestic and wild animal species [19] |
Measles virus (Paramyxoviridae) | RNA | Aerosol | Respiratory and gastrointestinal signs in NHPs including macaque species such as M. mulatta, M. fascicularis, M. radiata, and M. cyclopis [20] | Serological evidence of measles infection in several populations of free ranging NHPs in Sulawesi (Indonesia) [21] |
Yellow fever virus (YFV), dengue virus (DENV), Zika virus (ZIKV), West Nile virus (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV) (Flaviviridae) | RNA | Mosquito-borne | Encephalitis [22]. WNV isolated in M. sylvanus [23]; USUV infect cell lines or primary cells representing different vertebrate species, including monkeys [24] | Usutu virus is restricted to Africa and Europe, where it affects both mammals and birds |
Influenza type A viruses (Orthomyxoviridae) | RNA | Aerosol | Replicate in the upper respiratory tract of laboratory macaques, causing either asymptomatic or mild clinical infections [25] | Antibodies to influenza A were detected in sera of both pet and wild Tonkean macaques in Sulawesi (Indonesia) [21] |
Hepatovirus A (HAV) (Picornaviridae) | RNA | Fecal–oral | Self-limiting hepatitis A in a variety of primate species, including macaque species such as the rhesus macaque, the cynomolgus macaque, the stump-tailed macaque (M. arctoides), and the black macaque (M. nigra) [26] | Antibodies to HAV were detected in sera of rhesus macaque in Brazil [27] |
Hepatovirus E (HEV) (Hepeviridae) | RNA | Fecal–oral | Causative agent of self-limiting hepatitis E | Antibody responses reported in wild-caught macaque species suggesting natural infections; infectivity studies have demonstrated that the cynomolgus macaque and rhesus macaque are capable of transmitting HEV [28] |
Herpesvirus (HV) (Herpesviridae) | DNA | Sexual or biting behavior and by fomites | Zoonotic monkey Herpes B virus causes an extremely serious and usually fatal infection in man [29] | Associated with many important diseases in humans and were reported to occur also in NHPs [26] |
Orthopoxvirus (OPV) (Poxviridae) | DNA | Fecal–oral-nasal and skin contact | Fatal infections reported in captive Barbary macaque [30] and in Tonkean macaque [31] | Associated with many important diseases in humans and were reported to occur also in NHPs |