S.N | Study references | Elephant species | Source | Country | Disease transmission | Preventive measures |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Zachariah et al. (2017) [16] | Asian elephant | Free-ranging | India | Between human and elephant | Continued Surveillance among elephant population. |
2 | Obanda et al. (2013) [18] | African elephant | Free-ranging | Kenya | Source of infection is unclear | Domesticated elephants into the wild require efficient screening for TB, the status of TB in wild elephants should be assessed. |
3 | Angkawanish et al. (2010) [12] | Asian elephant | Captive | Thailand | Between human and elephant | Early diagnosis of infection is necessary. Combination of diagnostic approaches is essential. |
4 | Yakubu (2015) [34] | Asian elephant | Captive | Malaysia | Between human and elephant | The need for control strategies such as screening and newly acquired elephants, isolation of infected elephants and early treatment of confirmed cases. |
5 | Ong et al. (2013) [36] | Asian elephant | Captive | Malaysia | Between human and elephant | Elephant handlers need to be aware of the risk of TB acquisition from infected animals and be educated concerning infection control measures. |
6 | Murphree et al. (2011) [20] | Asian and African elephant | Refuge | USA | Between human and elephant | Increased knowledge about MTB infection in elephants, improved infection control practices, and specific occupational health programs. |
7 | Feldman et al. (2013) [37] | Asian and African elephant | Captive | USA | The difference in species susceptibility | Mandatory annual tuberculosis screening for all the elephants. |
8 | Rosen et al. (2018) [10] | African elephant | Captive | Zimbabwe | Source of infection is unclear | Routine TB testing of elephant handlers and regular serological screening of elephants are recommended as preventive measures. |
9 | Michalak et al. (1998) [1] | Asian and African elephants | Free-ranging | USA | Between human and elephant | Veterinary practices should be initiated to reduce the risks of exposure to animals infected with MTB. |
10 | Chandranaik et al. (2017) [9] | Asian elephant | Free-ranging | India | Source of infection is unclear | Wild elephants can harbor MTB that can become fatal. Need to assess the status of TB among wild animals and to examine whether wildlife can be a potential reservoir of the disease. |
11 | Ghielmetti et al. (2017) [30] | Asian elephant | Captive | Switzerland | Between human and elephant | Different transmission chains or prolonged infection over time. |
12 | Magnuson et al. (2017) [41] | Asian elephant | Captive | USA | Between human and elephant | Molecular test results can be used to support current diagnostic procedures applied by veterinarians for treatment decisions to prevent the spread of tuberculosis in elephants. |
13 | Rosen et al. (2018) [10] | African elephant | Captive | Five countries of Africa | Between human and elephant | Minimizing exposure through shared feed with other wildlife, routine TB testing of elephant handlers, and regular serological screening of elephants are recommended as preventive measures. |
14 | Simpson et al. (2017) [50] | Asian and African elephant | Captive | USA | Between human and elephant | Infection control protocols and careful monitoring of the treatment of captive elephants with tuberculosis are warranted. |
15 | Yakubu et al. (2016) [40] | Asian elephant | Captive | Malaysia | Between human and elephant | The need for TB screening of newly acquired elephants, isolating seropositive elephants and performing further diagnostic tests to determine their infection status, and screening elephant handlers for TB, pre- and post-employment. |
16 | Zlot et al. (2016) [21] | Asian elephant | Captive | USA | Between human and elephant | Improved TB screening methods for elephants are needed to prevent exposure of human contacts. |
17 | Lassausaie et al. (2015) [43] | Asian elephant | Captive | Laos | Between human and elephant | Medical monitoring of people working or living with elephants should thus be implemented. |
18 | Paudel et al. (2014) [11] | Asian elephant | Captive | Nepal | Between human and elephant | Regular TB screening of elephant handlers to safeguard human health and help prevent transmission of TB from humans to elephants. |
19 | Lewerin et al. (2005) [5] | Asian elephant | Captive | Sweden | Between Elephants and Captive Animals | Elephants and giraffe were found to have been infected by four different strains of MTB in a large Swedish zoo. |
20 | Larsen et al. (2000) [42] | Asian and African elephant | Captive | USA | TB infected elephants are the potential source of infection | Multiple-antigen ELISA would be a valuable screening test for detecting MTB infection in elephant herds. |
21 | Paudel et al. (2018) [38] | Asian elephant | Captive | Nepal | Source of infection is unclear | Regular TB screening of elephant handlers to safeguard human health and help prevent transmission of TB from humans to elephants. |
22 | Stephens et al. (2013) [44] | Asian elephant | Captive | Australia | Elephant to Humans and other animals | The mechanism for transmission from elephants in the Australian zoo require further investigation. |
23 | Montali et al. (2001) [2] | Asian Elephant | Captive and Free-ranging | USA | Transmissions of MTB between animals and humans are uncommon | Programs for tuberculosis prevention in animal handlers. |
24 | Mikota & Maslow (2011) [51] | Asian Elephant | Captive | USA | Between human and elephant | More epidemiological investigation in the transmission. |
25 | Greenwald et al. (2009) [45] | Asian and African elephant | Captive | Europe and the USA | Elephant to Humans and other animals | Rapid and accurate antibody tests to identify infected elephants will likely allow earlier and more efficient treatment, thus limiting the transmission of infection to other susceptible animals and to humans. |
26 | Mikota et al. (2000) [15] | Asian Elephant | Captive and Free-ranging | USA | Elephant and human | Further research is essential to validate other diagnostic test and treatment protocols |
27 | Jeewan et al.(2021) [35] | Asian elephant | Captive | Nepal | Between elephant to other hosts, including humans | Include blood parameters in future TB surveillance studies. |