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Table 3 Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission pathways and preventive measures

From: Understanding Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in elephants through a One Health approach: a systematic review

S.N

Study references

Elephant species

Source

Country

Disease transmission

Preventive measures

1

Zachariah et al. (2017) [16]

Asian elephant

Free-ranging

India

Between human and elephant

Continued Surveillance among elephant population.

2

Obanda et al. (2013) [18]

African elephant

Free-ranging

Kenya

Source of infection is unclear

Domesticated elephants into the wild require efficient screening for TB, the status of TB in wild elephants should be assessed.

3

Angkawanish et al. (2010) [12]

Asian elephant

Captive

Thailand

Between human and elephant

Early diagnosis of infection is necessary. Combination of diagnostic approaches is essential.

4

Yakubu (2015) [34]

Asian elephant

Captive

Malaysia

Between human and elephant

The need for control strategies such as screening and newly acquired elephants, isolation of infected elephants and early treatment of confirmed cases.

5

Ong et al. (2013) [36]

Asian elephant

Captive

Malaysia

Between human and elephant

Elephant handlers need to be aware of the risk of TB acquisition from infected animals and be educated concerning infection control measures.

6

Murphree et al. (2011) [20]

Asian and African elephant

Refuge

USA

Between human and elephant

Increased knowledge about MTB infection in elephants, improved infection control practices, and specific occupational health programs.

7

Feldman et al. (2013) [37]

Asian and African elephant

Captive

USA

The difference in species susceptibility

Mandatory annual tuberculosis screening for all the elephants.

8

Rosen et al. (2018) [10]

African elephant

Captive

Zimbabwe

Source of infection is unclear

Routine TB testing of elephant handlers and regular serological screening of elephants are recommended as preventive measures.

9

Michalak et al. (1998) [1]

Asian and African elephants

Free-ranging

USA

Between human and elephant

Veterinary practices should be initiated to reduce the risks of exposure to animals infected with MTB.

10

Chandranaik et al. (2017) [9]

Asian elephant

Free-ranging

India

Source of infection is unclear

Wild elephants can harbor MTB that can become fatal. Need to assess the status of TB among wild animals and to examine whether wildlife can be a potential reservoir of the disease.

11

Ghielmetti et al. (2017) [30]

Asian elephant

Captive

Switzerland

Between human and elephant

Different transmission chains or prolonged infection over time.

12

Magnuson et al. (2017) [41]

Asian elephant

Captive

USA

Between human and elephant

Molecular test results can be used to support current diagnostic procedures applied by veterinarians for treatment decisions to prevent the spread of tuberculosis in elephants.

13

Rosen et al. (2018) [10]

African elephant

Captive

Five countries of Africa

Between human and elephant

Minimizing exposure through shared feed with other wildlife, routine TB testing of elephant handlers, and regular serological screening of elephants are recommended as preventive measures.

14

Simpson et al. (2017) [50]

Asian and African elephant

Captive

USA

Between human and elephant

Infection control protocols and careful monitoring of the treatment of captive elephants with tuberculosis are warranted.

15

Yakubu et al. (2016) [40]

Asian elephant

Captive

Malaysia

Between human and elephant

The need for TB screening of newly acquired elephants, isolating seropositive elephants and performing further diagnostic tests to determine their infection status, and screening elephant handlers for TB, pre- and post-employment.

16

Zlot et al. (2016) [21]

Asian elephant

Captive

USA

Between human and elephant

Improved TB screening methods for elephants are needed to prevent exposure of human contacts.

17

Lassausaie et al. (2015) [43]

Asian elephant

Captive

Laos

Between human and elephant

Medical monitoring of people working or living with elephants should thus be implemented.

18

Paudel et al. (2014) [11]

Asian elephant

Captive

Nepal

Between human and elephant

Regular TB screening of elephant handlers to safeguard human health and help prevent transmission of TB from humans to elephants.

19

Lewerin et al. (2005) [5]

Asian elephant

Captive

Sweden

Between Elephants and Captive Animals

Elephants and giraffe were found to have been infected by four different strains of MTB in a large Swedish zoo.

20

Larsen et al. (2000) [42]

Asian and African elephant

Captive

USA

TB infected elephants are the potential source of infection

Multiple-antigen ELISA would be a valuable screening test for detecting MTB infection in elephant herds.

21

Paudel et al. (2018) [38]

Asian elephant

Captive

Nepal

Source of infection is unclear

Regular TB screening of elephant handlers to safeguard human health and help prevent transmission of TB from humans to elephants.

22

Stephens et al. (2013) [44]

Asian elephant

Captive

Australia

Elephant to Humans and other animals

The mechanism for transmission from elephants in the Australian zoo require further investigation.

23

Montali et al. (2001) [2]

Asian Elephant

Captive and Free-ranging

USA

Transmissions of MTB between animals and humans are uncommon

Programs for tuberculosis prevention in animal handlers.

24

Mikota & Maslow (2011) [51]

Asian Elephant

Captive

USA

Between human and elephant

More epidemiological investigation in the transmission.

25

Greenwald et al. (2009) [45]

Asian and African elephant

Captive

Europe and the USA

Elephant to Humans and other animals

Rapid and accurate antibody tests to identify infected elephants will likely allow earlier and more efficient treatment, thus limiting the transmission of infection to other susceptible animals and to humans.

26

Mikota et al. (2000) [15]

Asian Elephant

Captive and Free-ranging

USA

Elephant and human

Further research is essential to validate other diagnostic test and treatment protocols

27

Jeewan et al.(2021) [35]

Asian elephant

Captive

Nepal

Between elephant to other hosts, including humans

Include blood parameters in future TB surveillance studies.

  1. MTB M. tuberculosis, ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, TB tuberculosis