Table 1 Summary of study characteristics of the 17 studies on exotic species

Turtles (Chinese striped neck, Chinese box)

Keratitis/Ocular

Aeromonas hydrophila

Ofloxacin

Musgrave [10]

United States

Turtles (Aquatic)

Swollen eye syndrome/Ocular

Opportunistic gram negative and gram-positive organisms

Enrofloxacin, eye drops consisting of gentamicin and hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose

Varshney [11]

India

Rabbits

Orbital abscesses/Ocular

Pasteurella multocida, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas spp.

Enrofloxacin, azithromycin, fusidic acid eye ointment

Thomas [12]

Greece

Rabbits

Odontogenic abscesses/Intra-oral

Pathogens usually associated are: Pasteurella multocida, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus spp., Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, Bacteroides spp. Fusobacterium, Streptococcus, Escherichia coli, Corynebacterium pyogenes and Klebsiellas spp.

Metronidazole, enrofloxacin

Lord [13]

Scotland

Rabbits

Dental abscesses/Intra-oral

Various combinations of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria: Bacteroides fragilis, Bacteroides spp., Prevotella melaninogenicus, Proteus vulgaris, Pasteurella spp., Streptococcus spp., Actinomyces spp., Escherichia coli

Wound packing

Ampicillin most commonly used for the first packing procedure.

Other antimicrobials used to pack wounds were: cefazolin, cefoxitin, gentamicin, amikacin

Systemic treatment

Initial combination used for systemic treatment was trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole with metronidazole.

Azithromycin and

enrofloxacin were also used.

Taylor [14]

Canada

Rabbits

Dental disease/Intra-oral

Pasteurella spp. or Staphylococcus spp. most common pathogens. Fusobacterium nucleatum, Prevotella heparinolytica, Prevotella spp., Peptostreptococcus micros, Streptococcus milleri group, Actinomyces israelii and Arcanobacterium haemolyticum have also been found.

Enrofloxacin, oxytetracycline, doxycycline, amikacin, metronidazole

Papadimitriou [15]

Greece

Rabbits

(Lion-head, New Zealand White, Mongrel, Giant, Dutch, Dwarf, Rex and Lop ear)

Rabbit syphilis/Other

Treponema paraluiscuniculi (T. cuniculi)

Penicillin G

Kweon [16]

South Korea

Rat

Respiratory diseases/Respiratory

Caused primarily by pathogens such as: Mycoplasma pulmonis, Streptococcus

pneumoniae, Corynebacterium kutscheri, cilia associated respiratory (CAR) bacillus

Enrofloxacin, doxycycline, azithromycin, oxytetracycline

Benato [17]

Scotland

Rat

(African Giant)

1. Leptospirosis and Rickettsia/Other

2.Staphylococcosis/

Other

1. Leptospira, rickettsia

2. Coagulase-positive Staphylococci

1. Doxycycline

2. Amoxicillin trihydrate

Cooper [18]

United Kingdom

Guinea pig & Chinchilla

Facial abscesses associated with dental disease/Intra-oral

Can be caused by anaerobic and aerobic pathogens – susceptibility testing required.

Ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, tetracycline, doxycycline, metronidazole, chloramphenicol

Osofsky [19]

United States

Chinchilla

Bacterial conjunctivitis/Ocular

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus spp. (most common)

Systemic antimicrobials

Enrofloxacin, penicillin G,

doxycycline, trimethoprim-sulphonamides

Topical antibiotics:

Chloramphenicol, ofloxacin, fusidic acid, oxytetracycline

Ozawa [20]

United States

Guinea pig

Otitis media interna and externa/Aural

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, Streptococcus spp., Bordetella bronchiseptica

Enrofloxacin, chloramphenicol

Volait-Rosset [21]

France

Lizard

Uromastyx acanthinura

(Spiny-tailed)

Skin disease – scaly lesions/Skin

Devriesea agamarum

Ceftazidime

Lukac [22]

Croatia

Psittacine birds

(African grey parrots,

Peach-faced lovebird,

Galah, Goffin’s cockatoo, Moluccan cockatoo,

Senegal parrot)

Superficial chronic ulcerative dermatitis (SCUD)/Skin

Enterobacter cloacae, E. coli, S. aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumanii

Trimethoprim/ sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole), enrofloxacin,

amoxicillin clavulanate

Abou-Zahr [23]

United Kingdom

Psittacine birds

(Grey-cheeked parakeet,

Canary-winged parakeet,

Orange-chinned parakeet,

Spectacled Amazon,

Lilac-crowned Amazon,

Double yellow-headed Amazon,

Blue-head pionus,

White-capped pionus,

Dusky pionus,

Eleonora cockatoo,

Budgerigars)

Mycobacteriosis/

Respiratory

Mycobacterium avium, M. genevense

Drug combinations used:

1. Isoniazid, ethambutol, rifampin

2. Clofazimine, ethambutol, rifampin

3. Ciprofloxacin, ethambutol, rifampin

4. Amikacin, enrofloxacin

5. Enrofloxacin, ethambutol, rifampin

6. Clarithromycin, rifabutin, ethambutol, enrofloxacin

7. Clarithromycin, rifabutin, ethambutol

Lennox [24]

United States

Avian species

Renal disease – bacterial nephritis/Other

Enterobacteriaceae, Pasteurella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Streptococcus spp., and Staphylococcus spp.

Amoxicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanate, cefotaxime, cefoxitin, ceftazidime, ceftiofur, ceftriaxone, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, norfloxacin

Pollock [25]

United States

Lories and Lorikeets

Clostridial enteritis/

Gastrointestinal

Clostridium spp.

Lories - Oral metronidazole

Lorikeets - clindamycin

Karunakaran [26]

India