Fig. 1

Overview of the study areas. a Map of west-central Europe depicting the location of the mountain ranges of the Pyrenees (red striped area) and of the Alps (blue striped area) and the corresponding regions including the study areas (red and blue rectangles, respectively). Light grey surfaces represent the Atlantic Ocean and seas. b and c Close-ups of these regions, illustrating the distribution of wild Caprinae in France (filled areas). Solid thick black lines are national boundaries. Dashed red lines delimit epidemiological units in the Alps as defined in the text. In the Pyrenees, the entire mountain chain is considered to be a single epidemiological unit. Solid colored and grey lines correspond to the boundaries of national and regional natural parks relevant for the study. Different colors of surfaces and solid lines correspond to different epidemiological subunits and parks, respectively, on the French side of the national boundary. Shades of the same color correspond to a same study area (Green: Vanoise; Yellow: Ecrins; Blue: Southern French Alps, including the parks of Queyras and Mercantour; Red: Pyrenees). Shades of dark grey correspond to parks and subunits outside the study areas. Black dots and names indicate main cities